Housing affordability has stopped being solely a social policy question. In high-cost cities it now shows up directly in vacancy rates for teachers, nurses and transport staff.

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Employers respond with allowances, which raise wage bills without adding a single home. The subsidy is capitalised into rents within a year or two.

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Supply constraints are mostly local and mostly procedural: permitting timelines, appeals and infrastructure sequencing rather than an absence of land or capital.

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The cities that have made progress share an unglamorous trait. They shortened the time between an approved plan and a completed building.